Ancient History

Evolution of Human Life

• The theory of Continental Drift was proposed by …….. Alfred Wegener in 1915
• Wegner hypothesized that 200 million years ago a gigantic supercontinent was existed namely Pangaea means ………. “ All Earth ”
• During Jurasic period Pangaea started to break up in to Laurasia and Gondwanaland ..
• By the end of the Cretaceous period this continent developed to our modern day continent.
• Continental Drift theory was published in Wageners Book “On the Origin of Continents and Oceans “ .
• The theory that says that Modern humans evolved from Homo erectus is “ Radiation.theory “
• It says the evolution of Modern humans happened at first in Africa and then migrated to different routs.
• The Radiation theory is supported by the genetic evidence of modern human populations .
• The theory holds that modern humans evolved in parallel from several homo erectus populations is called Parallel Evolution theory.
• This theory was supported by Fossil evidence .
• Africa is said to be the cradle of human race .
• Anthropologists have Un earthed the oldest human skeletons in East African places such as Hadar , Olduvai , Laetoli.
• The best preserved female skeleton named “ Lucy “ was found at Hadar in Ethiopia .
• The first true hominid fossil discovered from Indian subcontinent is “ the Narmada skull “ of Hathnora near Hoshangabad in Madya Pradesh on 1982 .
• The Hathnora species dates from the middle pleistocene and belongs to the advanced “Homoerectus “ as Archaic Homosapience variety .
• The earlist traces of human existence in India discovered to the period between 300,000 and 200,000 B.C.

Pre – Historic Period

• It is the period of history which depends on artefacts other than written documents.
• It is broadly classified into four based on the materials used in this age

(1) Palaeolithic or Old stone age

• It is developed in the Pleistocene or the last of Great Ice Age about 2 million years ago.
• It has been devided in to three phases based on the nature of the stone tools and changes in the climates and environment .
  • a) The lower palaeolithic phase :- Used the stone tools such as handaxes , cleavers , choppers and chopping tools .
  • b) The middle palaeolithic phase :- Used the tools as Flakes .
  • c) The upper palaeolithic phase :- It is characterised by the tools as burins and scrapers .
• The palaeolithic stage is the :- Hunting- gathering stages of social evolution .
• Towards the end of the palaeolithic period the modern human beings” Homo sapiens “ First appeared around 36000 B.C.
• Major palaeolithic sites in Indian subcontinents are :-
  • The Siwalik region of the Potwar Plateau is Pakistani Punjab .
  • Riwat south east of Rawal pindi
  • The Pabbi hills to the east of Jhelum
  • The Kukeli valley in the Puna area of Maharashtra.
  • Beluchistan the western area of Bengladesh .
  • Ladakh in Jammu Kashmir.
  • The Palghat area of Kerala.

(2) Mesolithic Age or the Late stone Age

• This age began around 8000 BC , it was a transitional age between th Palaeolithic age and the Neolithic Age.
• It is in the end of the Ice Age .
• In India it continued well up to about 4000 BC .
• The Mesolithic tools are called „Microliths”.
• Microliths are small stone tools and their length ranges from 1 to 8cm.
• Blade , Corepoint ,Triangle ,Lunate, and Trapeze are the main type of Mesolithic tools .
• The technique of Mesolithic blade production is called fluting .
• The pachpadra basin , the Sojat area in Rajastan are rich in microliths.
• ‘ Tilwara ‘ is a Mesolithic habitaties site with two cultural phases .
• In second phase of Tilwara wheel made pottery and Iron Pieces are foundtogether with misoliths .
• The largest Mesolithic site found in India is “ Bangor “ in rajastan on the bank of River Kothari with three cultural phases .
• Langhna j in Gujarat on River Sabarmathi is another mesolithic site with three cultural phases .
• Bimbetka in madya Pradesh is another significant Mesolithic site .
• Bimbetka caves are discovered by dr .Vishnu Wakankar of Vikram University in 1957 – 58.
• The rock paintings shows that the most ancient scenes commomnly belonging to the mesolithic age .
• Chota Nagpur plateau , Central India and south of the River Krishna are some of the Mesolithic sites .
• Pre – Neolithic and Neolithic associated Microliths have been reparted from chota Nagpur plateau .
• The two Mesolithic sites in India shows evidence for domestication of cattle and sheep or goat are Bagaz and Alamgarh
• The Mesolithic Microliths are not known in Banaras and Lilly area of the north east .
• The Palaeolithic hunting – gathering pattern continued during the Mesolithic
• Age , but there has been a shift from large animal hunting to small animals and fishing .
• The efficient food collection leading to the beginning of plant cultivation .

(3) Neolithic Age

• The term “Neolithic “ was coined by Sir john Lubock in his book “ Prehistoric Times “.
• Neolithic settlement in the Indian sub continents are not older than 4000 BC.
• In World context it began much earlier in 7000BC .
• Neolithic settlements in Baluchistan series to be the oldest dating around 3,500 BC.
• It is a food producing stage .
• Domestication of plants and animals has been considered as one of the main characteristic features.
• On the basic of the archaeological evidences recently obtained the beginning of Domestication of plants and animals took place from Nile valley in Egypt .
• In India the settled life based on food production first began in the “ North west “ .
• The food production does not characterise the Neolithic economy of the ‘ Burzahom’ Is Srinagar Vally .
• The earliest known agrarian settlement in the Indian subcontinent is Mehrgarh in North eastern Baluchistan on 6000 BC.
• In Indian subcontinent the North Western Neothic culture includes the region Afghanistan and western Pakistan particularly the kachi plains in Baluchistan.
• The earliest evidence of the orgin of wheat and barly cultivation is in „ North Westen Neolithic culture “ .
• The ancient Neolithic site “ Mehrgarh “ is located at Kachi plain s, 150 km from quetta in Baluchistan .
• The cereals cultivated in Mehrgarh included Two varieties of barley and three varieties of wheat .
• The subsistence pattern of Neolithic period is characterised by A mixed economy based on farming , domestication of Animals and hunting .
• The first domesticated animals are Dog , goat and sheep
• The earliest grown cereals are Wheat and Barley
• The settlement of human beings in certain areas in Neolithic periods leads to the growth of Village and farming communities
• The type of pottery used by Neolithic peoples are Ochre – coloured pottery .
• An important discovery in Neolithic period is The Wheel
• The earliest known use of wheel was a potter’s wheel at ‘Ur’ in Mesopotamia in 3500 BC ? The first use of the wheel for transportation was on Mesopotamian chariots in 3200 bC .
• The two famous Neolithic settlement present in Kashmir vally are Burzahom and Gufkoal about 2500BC
• The first Aceramic or Pre – pottery phase discovered in India is Earliest phase of Gufkral
• The Neolithic culture of Kashmir vally is characterized by “ Pit dewellings with wellmade floors smeared with red – ochre “.
• Dog burials along with human burials have been repeated from Gufkral
• The period of Neolithic culture present in Kashmir valley is 2500 – 1500 BC .
• Beehive type hutments found in the Neolithic site of “ Chopani Mando in Belan valley “ .
• The Chirand , Cheehar ,Senuwar and Teradib are the Neolithic settlement found in Lower Gangetic valley in 2000 – 1600 BC .
• The Neolithic sites in Ganga valley which known for their remarkable stone tools are “ Chirand “ and “ Senu War “ .
• The Eastern Indian Neolithic settlement comprises. The hills of Assam including North cachar , the Garo and Nagahills .
• The Assam Neolithic culture phase has been tentatively dated around 2000 BC.
• The south Indian Neolithic settlements are mainly discovered from “ Decan Plateau “
• The main rivers drained to the South Indian Neolithic sites are “ Bhima , Krishna , Tungabhadra and Kaveri “
• Major excavated Neolithic sites of South India are Sangankallu , Nagarjunakonda , Maski , Brahmagiri , Tekkalakota, Piklihal ,Kupgal , Hallur ,Palavoy ,Hemmige and T.Narsipur .
• The two main Doabs present in the South Indian Neolithic region are
  • The Raichur Doab between the Krishna and the Thungabhadra
  • The Shorapur Doab between the Bhima and the Krishna .
    
• The South Indian Neolithic culture include the Karnataka Plateau , the Plateau region of North western part of Tamilnadu , Telengana , and Rayalaseema in Andra Predesh
• The Archaeologists classified three phases of South Indian Neolithic culture .
  • The earliest 1st phase → It is reported from the sites Sangankallu and Nagarjunakonda.
• The pottery characterised in the early south Indian Neolithic phase is Reddish brown pottery .
• The early phase is dated from 2500 BC .
  • The second phase The pottery of 2nd phase of south Indian culture is “Red ware pottery “ .
  • The third phase The pottery of 3rd phase of south Indian culture is “ Grey ware pottery “
• The date which starts from 1500 BC .
• One of the earliest crop cultivated by the Neolithic farmers of South India is Millet or Ragi
• The Neolithic and Chalcolithic amalgam excavated from piklihal and Tekkalakote in Karnataka or Guntur and Nagarjuna konda in Maharastra .
• The jorwe culture is found in Maharashtra .
• The Neolithic – chalcolithic cultural Megalithic burials found in The area between vidarbha region of Maharashtra and the lip of southern Peninsula .
• The important feature of Suthern Neolithic culture is Presence of Neolithic ashmount .
• The Neolithic period of south India is in 2600 – 1000 BC

North West Frontier and Kashmir

• This Neolithic region includes three major areas .
  • The Peshawar valley comprising Peshawar and Taxila .
  • The Potwar plateau comprising the area between swat and chitral „
  • The valley of Kashmir .
• The Neolithic site in potwar plateau gave way to a Harappan site Kot Diji related horizon is ?
  “ Sarai khola”
• In Kashmir most of the Neolithic sites are found in the “ Baramulla , Anantnag and Srinagar region “ .
• The ‘ Proto – historic grave yards are found in the Kashmir vally .
• The occurance of a Spiral headed copper hairpin is at ‘ Gufkral ‘
• Kot – Diji type ‘homed deity design’ on a globular pot was found at “Burzahom” .
• Hand Made grey pottery with a mat – impressed base is the distinguishing feature of the ceramic phase of the Kashmir at both its excavated site Gufkral and Burzahom.

North India

• The cist – burials represents „ horse burial „ and red grey , black spots are found at Almora is U.P
• The Iron – smelling site near Almora is ‘ Uleri ‘. dated around 1022 -826 BC.
• Based on Radio Carbon dates the iron working have begun in malwa around 1100 BC.
• Who said that the extensive forest clearance and agrarian settlement would not have been possible in the Ganga plain without the use of iron ? D.D .Kosambi in 1963 .
• In 3rd and 4th millennium B.C , the Ganeshwar Jodhpura culture was discovered From . North east Rajastan on the bank od river Sabi or Sahibi
• ‘Dish – on stand’ shape was found at ‘ Ganeshwar ‘.
• A copper mining and working area should be obvious in the sites of North East Rajasthan .
• The two Neolithic sites in Assam Doja littading in the north Kachhar hills and sarutary on the border between Assam and Megalaya .
• From which site in U.P excavated in deposit of Black – Slipped and Gray wares . The piprahwa Ganwaria . From ‘Saipai’ in U.P discovered sword and a harpoon .
• The Red – slipped pottery was associated with the evidence of wattle-and -daub houses supported by wooden posts were found at Atranji khera in U.P.
• The Ochre coloured pottery ( OCP) associated with ‘Copper Hoards’ is found at Lal Qila in U.P

(4) Chalcolithic or Copper Stone Age

• Chalcolithic periods are developed due to the beginning of use of metals .
• In India the Chalcolithic period is Reported about 1800 – 1000 B.C
• It is a transistional stage men used copper or bronze and stone tools and led a settled life .
• The chalcolithic cultures are widely extending from The chota Nagpur plateau to the Upper Gangetic basin .
• The three major Chalcolithic site excavated from South East Rajastan are Ahar , Gilund and Balathal
• This sites are drained by the rivers Banas , Bearch and their tributeries .
• ‘Ahore or Banas’ culture occurs in the districts of Udaipur , Chittorgarh , Bhilwara ,Ajmer , jaipur and jonk .
• The Chalcolithic site shows a heavy reliance of Copper is „ Ahar „.
• We get the evidence f rice from the Chalcolithic site ‘Banas’.
• The First metal to be used in India is Copper
• The important Chalcolithic sites are Brahamgiri near Mysore , Navada Toli .
• The metal tools not familiar in Indian Chalcolithic sites are Bronze
• The copper Stone Age Caltures existing in most parts of the country are younger than the Harappan Culture