Medieval India

Medieval India (Materials)

Transformation of the Ancient Phase

• The transformation from early historial to Medieval historical phase in India starts from the middle of the first millennium of the Christian era .
• The Medieval historical transformation is first visible in Inscriptions .
• The major evidence for understanding early medieval geographical changes of social lives are Inscriptions .
• The social environments in medieval domains were based relatively stable economic areas .
• Major dynasties had an average lifespan of more than 300 years .
• The dynasties became cultural symbols of tradition in cultural territories .
• Most medieval dynasties had combined elements of imperialism , regionalism and localism .
• A king (raja) became a great king (maharaja) or “ king of kings “ (Maha rajadhi raja) by adding the names of more subordinate rulers or Samanthas to his list are called “ Multiple Sovereignties ”.
• Major Tamil dynasties overlapped with Soveriegnties on 6th century are Pallava , Chola , Pandya ,Chera , Vijayanagara and Nayaka dynasties .
• The largest dynasty in Tamil territory was Vijayanagar in Karnataka .
• The Vijayanagara rulers spoke Telugu and Kannada .
• The Medieval early territory was called a ‘ nadu’ ,that is a small circle of villages .
• The Pandya country alone had thirty nadus in South of Maduri .
• The single dominant warrier group evolved in medieval Rajastan was called Rajput ,derived from Rajaputra .
• In 9th century separate clans of Rajput Chahamanas or Chauhans , Paramaras or Pawars Guhilas or Sisodias and Chalukyas or Solankis were branching off from the Gurjara Prathihara Clans .
• They formed an Imperial medieval dynasty spread across Rajastan , Malwa and the Ganga basin .
• Another group of warriors that propelled the medieval transition in India consisted of Clans in the high lands of Afganistan , Persia and Central Asia .
• The Persian warrior to acquire tribute in Punjab by defeating Hindu sahis was Sabuktigin the Father of Muhmud of Ghazni .
• Muhmud succeeded his father in 997 and extended his patrimonial ambition in all directions .
• After conquering Afganistan and Persia the title obtained Muhmud from the Caliph was Yamin -ul – Daula means Right Hand of the state .
• The famous Arab geographer , support Mahmud’s expansion in India was Al – Biruni .
• The parts act as trading world of Central Asia in Muhmud ‘s time were Indus and Ganga basins
• The eleventh and twelfth centuries in Indian History are usually witnessed the invasions of Muslim powers .
• At this times more inscriptions are found in India than ever before .
• In Medieval India the Ithihasa – Purana traditions were largely dominated for making genealogies of various dynasties based on sun moon etc .
• The new political elites were greatly dependent on the priestly classes.
• This period saw the extension of land under cultivation and settlement through land grants especially to Brahmins and temples .
• A type of medieval land grants practice to Brahmins especially in South India was termed ‘ brahmadeyas ‘ .
• The other category of grants to the brahmanical temples to South India was ‘ Devadana ‘.
• The gift of land to officials picked up momentum in Post – Gupta period .
• Very large territories were granted to vassals and high officers under the chalukyas of Gujarath , and it created another class of land lords .
• The hereditary ownerships of a family to the rights of possession and Supervision in medieval period was ‘ Kani rights ‘ .
• The names of various irrigation sources in different medieval Indian Provinces are as ,
  • Keres – tanks in South Karnataka
  • Nadi (river) ,Pushkarini (tank)
  • Srota (water channel) – Bengal
  • Agrahatta – wells in western Rajastan
  • Vapis – Stepwell in Rajastan and Gujrat
• The landgrants paved the way for feaudal development in india .
• The forced labour imposed to the peasants by the land loards are called ‘ Vishti ‘
• The text that deals with medieval Indian agricultural economy was
  • “ The Kashy –Piya Krishisukti “
• The text that mention the steps to cure disease of trees was
  • Vriksh ayurveda
• Advanced knowledge about weather conditions and their use in agricultural operations was noticeable in texts as
  • The Gurusamhita and Krishiparasara
• According to ‘ Shunya – Purana ‘ more than’ 50 ‘kinds of paddy were cultivated in Bengal .
• The major facts in medieval Indian society makes social rauking was .
  • Land posession
• The titles were conferred to the upper section in Medieval societies were
  • Thakur , Raut , Ranaka , Nayaka etc
• The main Shudra scribes were
  • The Kayasthas , Karanas , likhakars and lipikars .
• “ Gavundas “ are the Shudra scribes in
  • Decan
• One of the most distinctive feature of the social change in Post – Gupta period was the increase in the rise of new casts in each Varna particularly in the Brahmanas .
• ‘ Mitakshra ‘ the famous commentery of theSmriti of ‘ Yangya Valkya ‘ Speaks of the ten fold gradation of brahmanas .
• The possition of women in the society gradually declined .
• The Orthodox Brahmanical order was challenged by the Siva Sects as the pasupatas the Kamaka palikas and the Kala – Mukhas .
• The famous devotional work on Muruga in Medieval South India was
  • ‘ The Tiru muruga Arruppadai ‘
• The famous Sivaite Saints and Vaishnasvite Saints in the 6th and 7th Centuery were
  • The Nayanars and the Alvars respectively
• The collections of hymn dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu , written in Tamil were ‘ the ‘Tirumurari ‘ and the Nalayirapara – bandhan ‘ respectively .
• A famous women saint in this period was
  • Andal
• Singing of the hymns accompanied by music and dance became regular feature of temple rituals like ‘ Bharatanatyam ‘ set by
  • Sage Bharata in his text ‘ the Natya Shastra ‘
• ‘ Karakkal Ammai ’ was the only female Shiva Saints in TamilNadu .
• The three powerful North Indian Kingdoms arose between 750 – 1000 AD were;
  • I. The Rashtrakutas in the Northern Decan
  • II. The Pratiharas in Avanti and parts of Southern Rajastan .
  • III. The palas in Bengal
• The main reason behind the tripartiate struggle among the three powers was
  • Kanauj
• Finally the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the later Chalukyas .
• The Palas were replaced by the Senas .
• The Pratihara kingdom broken up in to number of small kingdoms and some of them were ruled by the Rajput princes .
• The first invader of India from the North West was (Persia).-
  • The Mahmud of Ghazni

Major Dynasties of North India

Prathiharas

• Prathiharas were a branch of the Gurjaras
• Arab writers Abuzaid and at Masudi allude their fights with the Gurjaras of the North.
• The Kanarese poet ‘ pampa’ calls Mahipala ‘ Gurjaraja ‘ .
• Prathiharas came in to prominance in the middle of the 8th century AD
• The first famous king of Prathihara was
  • Nagabhatta 1
• Their Principality comprising Malwa , parts of Rajpatena and Gujarath.
• Nagabhatta 1 was succeeded by Vatsaraja
• Vatsaraja defeated the famous Bandiclan an the king of Bengal Dharmapala .
• Vatsa raja was defeated by the Rashtraking Dhruva .
• Vatsaraj was succeeded by Nagabhatta II
• The Rashtra kuta king defeated Nagabhatta II was Govinda II
• Nagabhatta I I was Overran Kanauj , deposed Chakrayudha , Dharmapalas’s Protégé and made it the capital of Prathihara kingdom.
• The Gwalior inscription tells Nagabhatta II ‘s Victories .
• As per this inscription Nagabhatta II worn the following victories .
• Anartta in north Kathiawar , Malwa or Central India , Matsyas or eastern Raj putana the kiratas of the Himalayas ,Thrustikas the Arab settlers of Western India and the Vatsas in the territory of Kausambi or Kosam .
• Nagabhatta II was succeeded by Ramabhadra.
• Ramabhadra’s reign lasted only three years .
• Ramabhadra was succeeded by his son Bhoja , Known as “ Mihira Bhoja “
• The Prathihara power reached glory at Bhoja ‘s period
• Bhoja ‘s victory was inscripted on his “ Daulatpura copper plate – inscriptions “
• Bhoja was defeated by the pala king Devapala
• Bhoja’s contemporary Rashtra kuta king was Dhruva II
• After Devapala ‘s death Bhoja defeated the weak pala successor Narayana pala .
• Bhoja occupied Malwa after defeating the Rashtra kuta king Krishna II on the bank of the Narmada .
• Bhoja ‘s regin lasted on long 46 years .
• Bhoja’s regin and evenful carrer draw the attention of the Arab traveler sulaiman .
• Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendra pala 1
• Mahendra pala ‘s main achievement was the conquest of Magadha and Northern Bangal .
• Rajashekara , the most brilliant writer was lived in Mahendra pala ‘ s court .
• Rajashekara ‘s important literary works are Karpura manjari , BalaRamayana , Bala and Bharata , Kavyamimamsa .
• After Mahendrapala’s death his son Bhoja II seized the throne , But his half brother Mahipala soon usurped the throne .
• At this time the Rashtra kuta king Indra III completely devastated Kanauj .
• After the withdrawl of Indra III to the deccan Mahipala’s to recover .
• The Arab traveler at masudi went to India at Mahipala’s time .al – masudi reached in India on 915 – 16 AD
• The Arab chronicle testify the struggle between the Rashtrakutas and the Prathiharas , the disposes of the latter .
• Mahipala was succeeded by Devapala .
• During Devapala’s time the chandellas became virtually independent .
• The process of decline of the Prathihara empire had begun with Devapala .
• The decline accelerated with the reign of his successors Vijaya pala and Rajyapala .
• As per the inscription of the year 1036, the last ruler of the prathihara line was Yashpala .

Genealogical Tables of Prathiharas

Unnamed Ancestor
↓

Nagabhatta 1
↓

Vatsaraja
↓

Nagabhatta II
↓

Ramabhadra
↓

Mihira Bhoja 1
↓

Mahendrapala 1
↓

Bhoja II
↓

Mahipala (Kshitipala)
↓

Vijayapala
↓

Rajyapala
↓

Trilochanapala
↓

Yashpala

Palas

• Pala dynasty was formed by Gopala in Bengal which ruled for nearly ‘ 4 ‘ centuries.
• Gopala was born in Pundravarhana of bogra District in Bengal .
• Gopala was an ardent Buddhist .
• Gopala built the Monastry of Odantapuri , that is modern Bihar sherif .
• Gopala was succeeded by his son Dharmapala .
• Dharmapala was involved in a struggle with two main powers the Rashtrakutas and the Prathiharas .
• The prathihara ruler vatsaraja defeated Dharmapala in a battle at the Gangetic Doab .
• The Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated both Dharmapala and Vatsaraja .
• However after Vatsaraj’s defeat by Dhruva , and the latters left for the Deccan Dharmapala raised the Palakingdom to greatness .
• Dharmapala installed Chakrayudha on the throne of Kanauj .
• Dharmapala ‘s empire was extended as Bengal and Bihar at his direct rule Kanauj by his nomine , besides with large number of vassal states like the Punjab , Rajputane ,Malwa and Bengal .
• The Prathihara king Nagabhatta II conquered Kanauj and drove away Dharmapala’ s portege Chakrayudha .
• The Prathihara ruler Nagabhatta II defeated Dharmapala in a battle .
• Dharmapala was rescued with the aid of the Rashtrakuta king Govinda III .
• Dharmapala ‘s reign was lasted for 32 years .
• Dharmapala founded the famous Buddhist Mahavihera of Vikrama sila near Bhagalpur .
• He is also construct a Vihara at Paharpur in Somapura .
• According to Taranath Dharmapala founded ‘ 15 ‘ religious instructions .
• Dharmapala was patron of the great Buddhist author ‘ Harihara’
• Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala .
• Devapala was regarded as the most powerful pala ruler .
• Devapala defeated the Gurjaras and the Hunas and conquered Utkala and Kamarupa .
• Devapala’s Gurjara adversely was identified as MihiraBhoja .
• The Arab merchant Sulaiman ,Visited India in 85 AD and refers to the Pala Kingdom as ‘ Ruhmi ‘.
• Devapala was a great patron of Buddhism .
• Balaputra deva ,the Buddhist king of Java sent an ambassador to Devapala,s court for a grant of five villages to endow monastery at Nalanda .
• Devapala appointed ‘ Viradeva’ as head of Nalanda monastery .
• Devapala’s court was adorned by the Buddhist poet Vajaradatta .
• Vajradatta’s famous book was ‘ Lokesvara sataka’ .
• The glory of Pala empire was began to decline with the death of Devapala .
• Devapala was succeeded by Vigrahapala.
• Who have only a short reign of three to for years .
• Vigrahapala’s successor was his son Narayana pala .
• The Rashtra kuta king defeated Devapala was Amoghavarsha.
• Narayana pala was succeeded by his son Rajyapala
• Rajyapala was succeeded by his son Gopala II
• During these weak pala rulers period the invasions lead by Chandellas and Kalachuris disembered the pala empire .
• Mahipala 1 was ascended the throne in AD 98
• The Chola ruler Rajendra chola invaded Bengal at the time of Mahipala 1.
• Rajendra’s Tirumalai Inscription records the details of his conquest in the north .
• The last king of pala dynasty was Madana pala .

Genealogical Tables of Palas

Gopala1
↓

Dharmapala
↓

Devapala
↓

Vigrahapala 1(surapala 1)
↓

Narayanapala
↓

Rajyapala
↓

Gopala II
↓

Vigrahapala 11
↓

Mahipala 1
↓

Nayapala1
↓

Vigrahapala III
↓

Surapala II
↓

Madanapala

Senas

• Founder of senas samanta sena
• According to “Brahma kshatriya” Samanta sena was a Brahmin, his successors called themselves kshatriyas.
• Samanta senas successor was his son ‘Hemanta sena’
• The Sena ruler ,who ruled the empire more than sixty years was Vijaya sena , the son and successor of Hemanta Sena.
• Vijaya sena lead the foundation of the greatness of senas by conquering nearly the whole of Bengal
• The imperial title assumed by vijaya sena are paramesvara, parama bhattaraka,and Maha Rajadhi raja
• The vijayasenas empire had two capitals one at vijayapuri in west Bengal and another at Vikramapura in Bengladesh.
• The famous book “vijaya prasasti” deals vijayasenas memory it was composed by the poet ”Sri harsha”
• Vijaya sena was succeeded by his son Ballala sena
• Ballala sena was a great scholar and wrote four works
• The two currently extending works of Bellalasena was the Danasagra and The Adbhuta sagara
• The book of Bellala Sena deals about astromy was the Adbhutasagara.
• Bellala sena was succeeded by his son Lekshmana sena in 1179
• Lakshmana sena was a devout of Vishnava
• The famous Vishnava poet of Bengal lived in Lekshmana sena’s court was Jayadeva
• Jayadevas famous work was the “Gita Govinda”
• Other celebrated poets lived in his court was Dhoyi, the author of the “Pavanaduta “and Govardhana , the author of the “Arya – Saptasati”
• At this time the senas power was weakened by internal rebellions and the invasion of “Bhakhtiyar-khalji”
• The detailed account of the invasion of Bhakhtiyar –khalj was given from” Tabakat-i-Nasiri”.
• The “Adhbhuta sagra begun by Bellala sena was completed by Lakshmana sena
• According to “Tabakat – i – Nasiri” Lakshmana sena descendants ruled parts of Bengal for some more times

Genealogical Tables of Sena

Vira sena (Ancestor)
↓

Samanta sena
↓

Hemanta sena
↓

Vijaya sena
↓

Ballala sena
↓

Lakshmana sena
↓

Visvarupasena
↓

Purushottama sena

Rashtrakutas

• The term ‘ Rashtrakuta ‘ denoes officers in charge of Rashtras .
• Rashtrakutas originally belonged to Lattalura , that is modern Latur of Maharashtra .
• They were of Kannada orgin
• Their mothertongue was Kannada
• Danti durga , a feudatory of the chalukyas , was known for the founder of this lasting empire
• The Samanged plates and the Dasavatara cave inscriptions of Ellora describe the victorious carrier of Dantidurgas reign.
• Dantidura signified his victory over malwa by performing hiranyagarbha dana cermoney at Ujjain
• Dantidurga defeated the chalukya emperor Kirthi varman II and proclaimed himself as a paramount ruled of Deccan .
• Dantidurga died childless , so after his death succeeded by his uncle Krishna 1 .
• The Ganga ruler in Gandawadi or modern Mysore defeated by Krishna 1 was
  • Sripurasha
• Krishna 1 constructed the rock cut Monolithic temple at Ellora called Kailasa temple .
• Krishna 1 was succeeded by his eldest son Govinda II .
• Govinda II was overthrown by his brother Dhruva .
• The prathihara ruler defeated by Dhruva was Vatsaraja Prathihara in Kanauj .
• Dhruva was succeeded by his son Govinda III
• The major north Indian kings defeated by Govinda III was Nagabhatta II and his puppet Charayudha of Kanauj and the pala emperor Dharmapala.
• Govinda III was succeeded by his son Srava, known as Amoghavarsha 1 .
• Amoghavarsha’s reign was lasted long 64 years .
• He was an admirof peace ,religion and literature .
• Hene his reign lacked brilliance , Ganga wadi and malwa were lost to the empire .
• His later life developed learning towards Jainism and jinasena ,the author of ‘ Adipurana ‘ was his chief preceptor .
• The ‘ kavirajamarga ‘ the earliest work on poetics in the Kannada language was written by Amoghavarsha 1.
• ‘ The city of manyakhela’ was built by Amoghavarsha 1.
• Amoghavarsha 1 was succeeded by his son Krishna II .
• Like Amoghavarsha 1 , Krishna II was a Jaina .
• He was not a Warrior .
• Krishna II ‘s only achievement was the termination of Gujarath Branch .
• Krishna II was succeeded by his grandson indra III .
• Indra III defeated the Prathihara emperor Mahipala and occupied Kanauj .
• Indra III was Succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha II .
• After a year of accession he was died and succeeded by his brother Govinda IV .
• He was a tyrant , and it provoked universl resentment .
• Due to a revolution , ended the inglorious reign of Govinda IV and the Crown transferred to Amoghavarsha III .
• Amoghavarsha III was Succeeded by Krishna III.
• Krishna III lead a lightening expedition to the Chola kingdom and captured Kanchi
• and Tanjore .
• AD 949 , a battle at Takkolam in the North Arcot District with Cholas .
• Krishna defeated both the kerala and Pandya kings , occupying Rames varam for a time .
• The famous temples built in Ramesvaram by Krishna III were the temples of Krishnnesvara , and Ganda martandatiya .
• Krishna also effectively possessed Tondai mandala consisting of the Arcot ,Chingle put and Vellore District .
• Krishna III defeated the Paramara in Malwa , Harsha Siyaka and occupied Ujjain .
• His reign marked the dis inlegration of the Rashtrakuta empire .
• After a few years of Krishna ‘s death his feaudatory Tailapa overthrown Rashtrakutas and to lay the foundation of the western chalukya empire of Kalyani .
• Krishna III was succeeded by his half brother Kottiga .
• Harsha siyaka , the Paramara king defeated by Krishna ,defeated Kottiga and sacked malkhed , the Rashtre kuta capital .
• Kottiga was followed by his Nephew Karha II .
• After eighteen month of his accession , Tailapa (Taila II ) of chalukya family deprived his Soverignty over Deccan .

Rashtra kuta Administration

Various units of Rashtrskuta empire as follows ,

Rashtras or provinces
↓

Vishayas or districts
↓

Bhuktis composed of 50-70 villages
↓

Villages

• The head of the Rashtras was Rashtrapati .
• The head of the vishayas was Vishayapathi.
• The head of the bhuktis was Bhogapatis or tuhsil officers .
• They were appointed directly by central government .
• The hereditary revenue officers helped Bhogapathis in bhuktis are called Nalgavundas or desagramarkutas .
• The elders of the districts are called Vishaya Maharattas.
• The elders of the provinces are called the Rashtra Maharattas .

Arts and Culture

• The kavi rahasya of Halayudha was composed in the reign of Krishna III.
• Trivikram the author were of the Nala champu lived in Rashtrakuta court .
• Rashtra kutas were mainly patrons of the Jainism .
• Sanskrit literature were widely patronisd .
• The main Jain works in this period were ,

Ashta sati and Ashta sahasri , these are two commentaries of the Aptamimamsa .

Wrote by Akalanka and Vidyanandha .

• Manikya nandin wrote logic books Pariksha mukha sastra , and Naya kaumudic chandrodaya .
• Amoghavarsha 1’s period saw the Rashtrakuta’s high point of Jaina literature .
• ‘Harivamsa’ was composed by his spiritual preceptor Harisena .
• ‘ Adi purana ‘ life stories of various Jaina saints began by Harisena was completed by his disciple ,’Gunabhadra‘
• ‘Parsvabhyu daya’ was composed by Jainsena
• Amogha vritti a work on grammar by Saktayana and ‘Ganitasarasamgrahaka’ of Viracharya a treatise on Mathematics .
• Were two other important works of Amoghavarsha ‘s period .
• The beginning of the Canarese literature was in Rashtrakutas’s period.
• ‘Kaviraja marga’ written by Amogha varsha 1 was the first work of canarese on poetics .
• Vikramarjuna vijaya written by Pampa 1 at this period .
• Ponna author of santi purana lived in Rashtrs kuta’s court .

Genealogical tables of Rashtrakutas

Danti durga ( AD 752 – 56)
↓

Krishna 1 (AD 756 – 75)
↓

Govinda II (AD 775- 80)
↓

Dhruva (AD 780-92)
↓

Govinda III (AD 792-814)
↓

Amoghavarsha 1/ Srava (AD 814 – 80)
↓

Krishna II (AD 880 – 915)
↓

Indra III (AD 915 – 27)
↓

Amoghavarsha II (AD 927 – 30)
↓

Govinda IV (AD 930 – 34)
↓

Amoghavarsha III (AD 934 39)
↓

Krishna III (AD 939 – 68)
↓

Khottiga (AD 968 – 72)
↓

Karka (AD 972 – 983)